Biology A and B

Biology A and B Course Descriptions
These two course are an introduction to general biology and to the processes of scientific inquiry and thinking. They will include the fundamental principles of living organisms including physical and chemical properties of life,cellular organization and function, the transfer of energy through metabolic systems, cellular reproduction, the classificationof living things, the six kingdoms of life will be examined. The main focus is to present biological information in an understandable and straight forward way that will capture the students’ interest dealing with up to date principles and concepts.
These are generally 12 week courses and are intense with several involved labs to complete. The Labs are an important part of this class, and they will go a long way in enriching the student's educational experience.
The Students are required to participate in virtual laboratory investigations throughout this class that are within the course content and online. Labs are an important part of the scientific process, and understanding the scientific process is one of the most important parts of any science class. Students will gain a detailed understanding of the scientific process and lab procedures by performing labs related to important biological theories and ideas.
Here below is a list of the Lab assignments in these two courses with their objectives and some descriptions :
The Enzyme Lab :
Objectives:
1. Study the effects of temperature, pH, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, and enzyme specificity on the function of several types of enzymes.
2. Be able to discuss the role of enzymes in the functioning of the human body.
3. Be able to discuss the effects of altered enzymes on the human body.
4. Understand and be able to relate the protein nature of enzymes to their function.
The Photosynthesis Lab:
Objectives:
1. Learn about the requirements for the photosynthesis process to occur
2. Conduct a series of guided investigations in a virtual science lab
The Mitosis Lab :
Objectives:
1. Learn about cell division in prokaryotes, how fast it is, and the basic steps of DNA replication, segregation of DNA, and Cytokinesis.
2. Learn the processes occurring during the cell cycle.
3. Be able to discuss the processes occurring in mitosis, in your own words.
4. Be able to discuss the processes occurring in meiosis, in your own words.
5. Distinguish between the roles of mitosis and meiosis in the life of a multicellular organism.
6. Be able to discuss the process of gametogenesis.
The Meiosis Lab :
Objectives:
1. Learn the stages of Meiosis and the events in each stage.
2. Compare events of mitosis with those of meiosis.
3. Learn how meiosis contributes to and plays a role in gamete formation.
The DNA Lab :
Objectives:
1. Learn about the structure of the DNA molecule and how DNA replicates itself.
2. The nature of complementary DNA bases
3. The personalities and cultural context of the race to discover the structure of DNA.
The RNA Lab :
Objectives:
1. Learn about the types of RNA molecules produced by cells.
2. Study the details of transcription and translation.
The Evolution Lab :
Objectives:
1. Examine the evidence supporting the theory of evolution.
The History of Life lab :
Objectives:
1. Learn about the different types of fossils
2. Select and study in depth a group of organisms
3. Prepare a virtual poster session to be shared with your classmates detailing the biology and evolution of the group of fossils you have chosen. An alternate to this activity is to prepare a poster on life of a particular period or epoch of geologic time.
The Plant Structure Lab :
Objectives:
1. To familiarize yourself with the concepts of cells, tissues, organs, and organs systems, and how those relate to the multicellular organism.
2. To learn about and be able to recognize the various types of cells that occur in a flowering plant
The Flower, Fruits, Seeds Lab :
Objectives:
1. You will learn about the structure of flowers, fruits and seeds.
2. You should be able to identify the various parts of a typical flower and give their functions.
3. You will learn what represents the male gametophyte and female gametophyte in flowering plants, and what is meant by the term “alternation of generations”.
4. You will learn about the processes of microsporogenesis, megasporogenesis, and pollination.
5. You should be able to describe the “double fertilization” that is unique to flowering plants.
6. You will learn the function/value of fruits to both the plant as well as humans.
7. You will learn about the major types of asexual reproduction among flowering plants.
The Virtual Pig Dissection Lab :
Objectives:
1. Explore and report on the various organs and organ systems in a mammal, as typified by a fetal pig.
2. Study the interconnectedness and dependence of the major organ systems of a mammalian body.
The Biomes Lab :
Objectives:
1. Explore and report on one of the terrestrial biomes shown in the map above..
2. Develop and present a virtual poster to be presented at you class’ online virtual presentation session.
Biology A

Photosynthesis Lab:
Objectives:
1. Learn about the requirements for the photosynthesis process to occur
2. Conduct a series of guided investigations in a virtual science lab
Students will perform 4 separate experiments to understand the process by which plants make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll and light, and release oxygen as a by-product. In this lab students will examine photosynthesis, one of the two major processes by which most organisms convert energy from an unusable form to a usable chemical form (photosynthesis), and then convert that chemical energy into ATP, the energy currency of the cell (cellular respiration).
In a four part virtual lab, students will:
• Record the initial pH value of the water in the beaker
• Record the pH value of the water in the beaker at different given times
• Record the behavior of the glowing splinter after it’s placed in the test tube- Record the duration of the burn
• Record your observations of the leaf after being removed from the boiling water and being dipped in ethanol
• Record your observations of the leaf after staining it with iodine
• Complete lab report and post lab questions

Lab Report: Photosynthesis

Your Name:

Purpose of this Lab
What is the goal of this lab? What question are you trying to answer, or what problem are you trying to explain?

Hypothesis
After reading the lab instructions - but before starting the lab - record your best “educated guess” about what will happen in the experiment. Explain what lead you to this hypothesis.

Experimental Design
List the materials used in this lab, and a brief explanation of the procedures you followed. (You do not need to retype the procedure; simply summarize your procedures). Add #’s where necessary.

Materials:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Procedure (summarize methods used):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Data

Experiment 1 Data and Observations

Step 4
Record the initial pH value of the water in the beaker:___________

Step 8
Record the pH value of the water in the beaker at:

Time pH Value
1:00 pm
2:00 pm
3:00 pm
4:00 pm
5:00 pm

Step 12
Record the behavior of the glowing splinter after it’s placed in the test tube: _________________

Record the duration of the burn: _____________

Experiment 2 Data and Observations

Step 3
Record the initial pH value of the water in the beaker: ____________

Step 7
Record the pH value of the water in the beaker at:

Time pH Value
8:00 am
9:00 am
10:00 am
11:00 am
12:00 pm

Step 11
Record the behavior of the glowing splinter after it’s placed in the test tube: ________________

Record the duration of the burn: ______________

Experiment 3 Data and Observations

Step 3
Record your observations of the leaf after being removed from the boiling water and being dipped in ethanol: ____________________________________

Step 5
Record your observations of the leaf after staining it with iodine: _________________________

Experiment 4 Data and Observations

Step 3
Record the initial pH value of the water in the beaker: _______

Step 7
Record the pH value of the water in the beaker at:

Time pH Value
8:00 am
9:00 am
10:00 am
11:00 am
12:00 pm

Steps 8, 11, and 15 (multiple trials)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4
Hot plate temperature
1pm pH value
2 pm pH value
3 pm pH value
4 pm pH value
5 pm pH value
Observations of splinter in test tube
Duration of burn

Conclusion
After conducting the experiment, how would you now explain the problem(s) or answer the question(s) raised when you described the purpose of the lab? Be sure to base your answer on the data you collected. Consider whether your conclusion is the only explanation for the data you collected, or if there could be alternate explanations.

Enzyme Lab:
Objectives:
1. Study the effects of temperature, pH, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, and enzyme specificity on the function of several types of enzymes.
2. Be able to discuss the role of enzymes in the functioning of the human body.
3. Be able to discuss the effects of altered enzymes on the human body.
4. Understand and be able to relate the protein nature of enzymes to their function

Students will determine the function of enzymes in the human body by the testing and observing the chemical reactions between hydrogen peroxide and several different materials. Upon completion of the lab students, will understand the functioning of enzymes in liver cells and how destruction of caustic substances occurs. In the laboratory students are asked to design and record the tests they have performed in the Enzyme Observation form to detect the presence of catalase in several items.

Materials:
• Commercially available bottle of hydrogen peroxide, from drugstore
• Liver, either chicken or beef
• An onion
• A small potato
• An Apple (peeled)
• Wooden sticks
• Matches
• Sharpie marker pen or other pen that can write on a glass surface
• Tap water
• Several glass kitchen glasses

Lab Report: Enzyme Lab

Your Name: __________________________________________________________________
Purpose of this Lab
What is the goal of this lab? What question is it trying to answer, or what problem is it trying to explain?

Hypothesis
After reading the lab instructions - but before starting the lab - record your best “educated guess” about what will happen in the experiment. Give your reasons and outline any assumptions that lead you to this hypothesis.

Experimental Design
List the materials used in this lab, and the procedure you followed.

Materials:
1.
2.
3.

Procedure (list steps in the order in which you performed them):
1.
2.
3

Data
Record the data you collected in the lab
Material Observed Reaction Catalase Present
Apple
Potatoes
Chicken liver
Onions

Analysis
Analyze the data you collected in the lab (provide additional instructions and/or formatting relevant to the particular lab…)

Conclusion
After conducting the experiment, how would you now explain the problem(s) or answer the question(s) raised when you described the purpose of the lab? Be sure to base your answer on the data you collected. Consider whether your conclusion is the only explanation for the data you collected, or if there could be alternate explanations.

Post Lab Questions:
1. What does an antioxidant do for the human body? Use the Internet or a book to answer this.
2. What happened to each test tube?
3. What was the purpose of the water in tube “C”?
4. Since hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a chemical made up of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O), and since enzymes are not SUPPOSED to be used up, what might be formed in the chemical reaction shown below?
H2O2 -----------------------> _____________ + ____________
5. Which gas, oxygen or hydrogen, was produced by the reaction? State your evidence.
6. What happened in the second tube? Was there a reaction? Explain.
7. What is hydrogen peroxide used for around the house? Explain its use and action in view of the activities in this lab.

Biology B
Virtual Pig Dissection Lab:
1. Explore and report on the various organs and organ systems in a mammal, as typified by a fetal pig.

2. Study the interconnectedness and dependence of the major organ systems of a mammalian body

In this laboratory, students will examine those features that represent mammalian anatomy and modifications characterizing the mammalian embryo. Students will not only memorize the name, appearance and location of each structure, but also to relate each structure to its function and its role in the physiology of mammals.
• Determine the sex of the pig
• Locate and identify the main parts of the digestive system
• Identify parts of the circulatory system
• Locate and identify the reproductive organs of y our pig
• Complete lab report and post lab questions

Lab Report: Pig Dissection Lab

Your Name: __________________________________________________________________

Click on the anatomical references link. This opens a new browser window. Work through the text below using this external view of your pig. When you have worked through this section, take the Anatomical Reference self quiz.
The body of the fetal pig can be divided into the head, neck, thorax and abdomen. Located on the head are the eyes, snout, mouth, and ears. These are surrounded by upper and lower eyelids.

Pigs primarily feed by foraging. The snout has a tough rim of tissue called the dorsal rooter that aids in digging out underground roots. The respiratory system opens externally through the nostrils or external nares and the mouth. Two large earflaps of cartilage called pinnae (singular is pinna) help to direct sound waves into the outer ear.

The trunk can be divided into two regions: the anterior thorax and the more posterior abdomen. Inside the these regions are separated by the diaphragm, a dome shaped muscle at the base of the rib cage.

Three characteristics of most mammals are seen readily in the external anatomy of the fetal pig: hair, an umbilical cord, and mammary glands. In most mammals, the fetus is attached to the mother by the umbilical cord. The umbilical cord contains the blood vessels that transport dissolved nutrients, gases, and wastes to and from the placenta. Locate the umbilical cord on the ventral surface of your pig and cut off the end about 1 cm from its attachment to the abdominal wall (cut across not along the length). Within the umbilical cord, you should see two thick-walled umbilical arteries, which have been injected with pink latex, and a large but thin-walled umbilical vein (injected with blue latex). These fetal blood vessels close off at birth to form ligaments.
On the ventral surface of the abdomen locate the five or six pairs of teats or mammary papillae. These are the external openings of the mammary glands. Teats are found in both male and female pigs. All mammals suckle their young. The name “mammal” is derived from the same Latin root as the mammary gland.
2. Click on the Sexing Your Pig link. This opens a new browser window. Work through the text below using this external view of your pig’s reproductive system. When you have worked through this section, take the Sexing Your Pig self quiz.
The sex of your pig can be determined by locating the opening of the urogenital system. In fetal pigs, the excretory (or urinary) system and the reproductive system have a single external urogenital opening or orifice. In males, the urogenital system opens through the preputial orifice just posterior to the umbilical cord. You will also find a sac of skin, the scrotum, posterior to the hind legs in the male. The scrotum contains (or will contain as the fetus matures) the descended testes. In both sexes, the external opening of the digestive system, the anus, is located ventral to the tail. In the female pig, the single urogenital opening is located immediately ventral to the anus and is surrounded by the small fleshy genital papilla. Although you will be dissecting a pig of only one sex, you are responsible for knowing the external and internal anatomy of both the male and female pig.
Is your pig a male or a female? ______________________________________ How can you tell?
3. Click on the Digestive system link. This opens a new browser window. Work through the text below using this external view of your pig’s Digestive system. When you have worked through this section, take the Digestive system self quiz.
The Oral Cavity:
Click on the head region of your pig and explore the parts of the digestive system that occur in this region before proceeding through the virtual pig dissection website to the abdominal cavity.
The entrance to the digestive system is through the mouth. In a mature pig, food is chewed and mixed with saliva in the mouth. Salivary enzymes begin the digestion of carbohydrates.

When carbohydrates are digested, what is the name for the basic subunits (or “building blocks”) to which they are broken down? ______________________________________.
Like humans, pigs are omnivorous and the arrangement of their teeth is quite similar to ours. Omnivores tend to use all three major kinds of teeth: incisors, canines, and molars. Have any of your pig’s teeth erupted through the gums yet? ___________. The tongue is a prominent muscular organ which helps to manipulate food within the oral cavity. Notice the numerous sensory papillae on the surface of the tongue. The papillae contain taste buds responsible for the sensations of sweet, sour, salty, and bitter associated with the sense of taste.
Notice that the roof of the mouth can be divided into two regions: an anterior ridged region called the hard palate and a smooth posterior soft palate. Compare the look of these two regions; the hard palate has underlying bone while the soft palate is composed primarily of mucous membranes. In humans, there is a fleshy extension of the soft palate called the uvula (the “punching bag” you see in the back of your throat). The palate separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity.
Passageways to both the digestive and respiratory systems lead from the throat or pharynx. The body has several mechanisms to assure that only air reaches the lungs and that primarily solids and liquids reach the gut. Air enters the body through both the external nares and the mouth. The oral and nasal cavities meet in the pharynx. The connection to the nasal cavity, the nasopharynx, can be seen within the oral cavity as an opening at the posterior region of the soft palate. The flap of tissue that “pops out” of this opening as you press the upper and lower jaws apart is the epiglottis. The epiglottis helps to protect the respiratory tract from particulate material; it covers the opening to the respiratory system during swallowing. Find the glottis, the opening to the respiratory system, immediately dorsal to epiglottis. The muscular tube that carries food to the digestive system, the esophagus, is the opening dorsal to the glottis.
During swallowing, a ball of food is propelled from the oral cavity toward the esophagus by the tongue, and the epiglottis covers the glottis to protect the lungs from food particles.
Click the start over button to proceed to the abdominal part of this system.

Food enters the body through the mouth where it is mixed with digestive enzymes from the ____________. These enzymes begin the digestion of ______________ into _______________. The bolus is propelled to the pharynx by the tongue and is allowed. The ____________ closes over the _________ upon swallowing to protect the respiratory tract from food particles.
The bolus of food enters the esophagus, a muscular tube connecting the pharynx and stomach. You should have been able to locate the opening to the esophagus in the back of the oral cavity. The esophagus can also be seen as a muscular tube dorsal to (behind) the trachea in the throat.
Food is propelled along the esophagus by waves of muscular contraction, known as peristalsis, to the stomach. Locate the stomach in the abdominal cavity by lifting the large dark liver. Food is churned and mixed with water, acid, mucus, and protein digesting enzymes in the stomach until it has acquired a much more liquid consistency (called chyme). From the stomach, the chyme passes to the small intestine. At the entrance to and exit from the stomach there are rings of muscles called spincters which contract and relax to close and open the passageways. These spincters thereby regulate the one-directional passage of food from one region of the digestive system to another. The ring of muscle found where the esophagus meets the stomach is called the cardiac sphincter (“cardiac” because it is close to the heart); it helps to prevent the reflux of the acidic contents of the stomach back into the esophagus. The more prominent sphincter of the stomach is the pyloric sphincter that regulates the passage of chyme from the stomach to the small. You may be able to feel this by squeezing on the juncture of the stomach and the small intestine.
From the stomach the chyme passes to the intestines, first the small intestine and then the large intestine. The large intestine can easily be distinguished from the small intestine in the pig because it is held tightly together in a coiled mass (sometimes called the spiral colon), while the small intestine is much more loosely arranged in the abdominal cavity.
Most of the digestion and absorption of ingested food occurs in the small intestine. The small intestine can be divided into three sequential regions: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum is the first loop of the small intestine from the stomach. The jejunum and ileum cannot be distinguished easily in the pig based only on the external anatomy. The nutrients in the chyme are further digested in the small intestine by enzymes secreted by cells lining the passageway itself and those secreted by accessory organs such as the pancreas and the liver.
Locate the pancreas, it is beige sponge-like gland that produces enzymes and secretes them into the small intestine. The pancreas also functions to produce the hormone insulin that lowers glucose levels in the blood. The liver is one of the largest organs in the body weighing about 4 lbs in the average adult human. The liver has over one hundred different functions including the production of bile. Bile is important in the digestion of lipids; it is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder before being secreted into the small intestine where it actually does its job. The gall bladder is a small, often greenish, storage organ located underneath the right lobe of the liver. Remember food never actually passes through either the pancreas, liver, or gall bladder --- it is always contained within the small intestine --- but the products of these organs are essential to the digestive processes which occur in the small intestine.
Complex organic molecules are completely broken down to their simplest subunits (“building blocks”) within the small intestine. These subunits are then absorbed into the bloodstream for distribution throughout the body. Notice that the small intestine is richly supplied with blood vessels fund in a thin membranous interconnecting mesentery. The absorbed subunits will be used by the cells of the body either as a source of cellular energy or as building blocks to synthesize their own proteins, lipids, DNA, RNA, and polysaccharides as they are needed.
The undigested and unabsorbed remains of the chyme pass from the small intestine to the large intestine. No further digestion occurs within this region of the intestinal tract, but the large intestine is very important in the absorption of water and ions. The consistency of the contents is solidified from the liquid chyme to semi-solid feces. At the juncture between the small and large intestines, locate a small finger-like projection called the caecum. The caecum is long in some animals like rodents and horses and houses a colony of microorganisms that digest cellulose. In humans, the appendix is found at the end of a short caecum. From the large intestine, the feces pass through the rectum and exit the body through the anus.
. Click on the Circulatory system link. This opens a new browser window. Work through the text below using this external view of your pig’s circulatory system. When you have worked through this section, take the Circulatory system self quiz.
The circulatory system interconnects the various specialized organ systems of a complex multicellular organism. It absorbs nutrients and oxygen from the digestive and respiratory system and carries them to all the cells of the body where they are needed; conversely it collects waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea from the cells of the body and delivers them to the specialized systems whose function it is to rid the body of these wastes (the respiratory and excretory systems respectively).
The mammalian circulatory system consists of a muscular pump, the heart, and a continuous system of blood vessels. Blood is pumped from the heart in arteries to the tissues of the body. Arteries branch into increasingly narrow vessels until the blood passes through microscopic vessels called capillaries: capillaries are the site of exchange between the blood and the adjacent cells of the body. Capillaries merge into larger veins which return the blood to the heart. In your pig, the arteries have been injected with pink latex and the veins with blue latex.
Locate the heart in the thoracic cavity. It may be still enclosed in the relatively tough membranous pericardium (literally “around the heart”) which you will have to remove to readily visualize the chambers of the heart. Mammals and birds have a four chambered heart, each side of the heart having an upper atrium which receives blood from veins and pumps it into a lower ventricle which in turn pumps the blood from the heart in an artery. Locate the right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, and left ventricle (remember this is the pig’s right and left side!!). Notice that the walls of the ventricles are significantly more muscular than the walls of the atria; this is because the amount of force the ventricle must exert on the blood to pump it away from the heart is significantly greater than that applied by the atrium to pump the blood simply to the adjacent chamber of the heart.
The circulatory system is often divided into two circuits: the pulmonary circulation and the systemic circulation. The pulmonary circulation involves the right side of the heart, pumping blood to the lungs and returning the oxygen-rich blood to the left side of the heart. The systemic circulation uses the left side of the heart to pump the blood to the cells of the body and return it to the right side of the heart.
The Pulmonary Circulation:
Blood is returned to the right side of the heart in the largest vein in the body, the vena cava. Blood collects from the various smaller veins in the upper part of the body in the anterior vena cava and from the various smaller veins in the lower part of the body in the posterior vena cava You can readily locate the anterior and posterior vena cava as the very large blue vessels anterior and posterior to the heart itself on the right side (you may have to lift the heart slightly to see the posterior vena cava beneath). You can also locate the posterior vena cava in the abdominal cavity if you move the intestines aside. Why would the vena cava be classified as a vein? __________________________
The blood enters the right atrium and is pumped by this chamber of the heart to the right ventricle. The right ventricle, in turn, pumps the blood from the heart in the pulmonary artery or trunk towards the lungs. Within the capillaries of the lungs, gases are exchanged by diffusion; oxygen diffuses from the ______________ to the ______________ and carbon dioxide diffuses from the ______________ to the _______________. The oxygen-rich blood now returns to the left side of the heart in the pulmonary veins to complete the pulmonary circulation.
The Systemic Circulation:
It is the task of the left side of the heart to pump this oxygen-rich blood to all the cells of the body. The blood is carried to the left atrium in the pulmonary veins. Just as in the right half of the heart, blood is pumped by the atrium to the ventricle and by the ventricle away from the heart in a large artery. In fact, the artery leaving the left side of the heart is the largest in the body, the aorta.
The aorta forms an arch (commonly called the aortic arch;) and extends along the back. Numerous smaller arteries branch off the aortic arch so supply the cells of the upper body with blood. These arteries include the subclavian artery (extending to the foreleg) and the carotid artery from the dorsal aotra to supply the tissues and organs of the lower body such as the hind legs, digestive system, and kidney (renal artery). The cells of the heart muscle itself also must be supplied with blood; this is accomplished by the narrow coronary arteries that are seen on the surface of the ventricle. All of these arteries branch into narrower and narrower blood vessels until finally the capillary beds in each organ are reached. The capillaries are the site of exchange in the tissues of the body; nutrients and oxygen are delivered to the cells and waste products including carbon dioxide are picked up into the blood stream.
The capillaries merge to form veins running parallel to the corresponding arteries. For example, blood is returned from the foreleg in the subclavian vein, from the kidney in the renal vein, from the heart muscle in the coronary vein and from the head in the jugular vein. These veins ultimately fuse with the anterior or posterior vena cava, depending on whether they are found in the upper or lower region of the body, returning the blood to the right side of the heart. This completes the systemic circuit and now the pulmonary circuit is repeated.
Notice that the heart is simply a four-chambered muscular pump. No exchange of gases, nutrients or wastes occurs here. Notice also that the blood is always enclosed in a blood vessel and can travel in only one direction.
Trace the pathway of a red blood cell from the right atrium through the pulmonary circulation to the left atrium and from there to the foreleg and back to the heart (List the sequence of major blood vessels and chambers of the heart through which it will pass).
5. Click on the Respiratory system link. This opens a new browser window. Work through the text below using this view of your pig’s Respiratory system. When you have worked through this section, take the Respiratory system self quiz.
Within the neck, separate the muscle fibers to expose the larynx (“voice box”) and the trachea (“windpipe”). The larynx is connected to the trachea that in turn divides into the left and right bronchi. Notice that the trachea is held open by C-shaped rings of cartilage. It is these rings of cartilage that you feel externally if you palpate your own throat. The cartilage found in the larynx and trachea makes these organs quite hard to the touch.
The bronchi connect to the lungs. Notice that the left lung (that’s the pig’s left remember!!) is composed of two lobes and the right lung of three lobes. The two lobes and the right lung of three lobes. The two lungs are separated by a space, called the mediastinum, housing the heart, the esophagus, and some major blood vessels.
Air is drawn into (inspiration) and expelled from (expiration) the lungs by alternating changes in the size of the thoracic cavity. The cavity is expanded by contraction of the muscular diaphragm and the muscle between the ribs, drawing air into the lungs. Expiration is accomplished by relaxation of these muscles.
Trace the pathway of air through the respiratory tract of your pig starting with external nares and mouth.
On either side of the larynx and trachea are the long beige sponge-like thymus glands. These glands are important in the immune system. Ventral to the trachea is the reddish brown thyroid gland. This endocrine gland produces hormones that are important in the regulation of metabolism.
6. Click on the Excretory system link. This opens a new browser window. Work through the text below using this view of your pig’s Excretory system. When you have worked through this section, take the Excretory system self quiz.
One of the major products of metabolism in cells throughout the body is urea. This nitrogen-containing compound is a waste produced in the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids. Urea is collected from all the tissues of the body by the circulatory system and is selectively removed from the blood by the kidneys. The urine produced by the kidneys contains urea along with extra water and ions. The kidneys are critically important in maintaining the water and electrolyte balance of the organism.
The kidneys are located dorsal to the peritoneum in the lower abdomen. Each kidney is made up of millions of microscopic tubules known as nephrons. Urine is produced in these nephrons by the selective processing of blood. Blood is brought to the kidneys by the renal artery and that filtered blood is returned to the posterior vena cava via the renal vein. The entire blood plasma volume is filtered about 60 times each day.
Urine is transported from each kidney to the urinary bladder by a ureter.
7. Click on the Reproductive system link. This opens a new browser window. Work through the text below using this view of your pig’s Reproductive system. When you have worked through this section, take the Reproductive system self quiz.
Male Reproductive System:
The male reproductive organs, testes, are formed in the abdominal cavity early in embryonic development, and then descend into the scrotum as gestation continues. Depending on the size (and corresponding age) of the pig, the testes may be at various stages in their descent into the scrota sacs or may still be contained within the abdominal cavity.
Sperm are produced within the testes by the process of _____________. Sperm travel through an extremely narrow, highly convoluted tubule called the epididymis and then to the ductus deferens or vas deferens which leads to the urethra.
The urethra extends posteriorly for a time, but then when it nears the posterior end of the body, it makes a rather sharp “U-turn” to bend upward toward the preputial orifice or urogenital opening. This tube is the penis in the fetal pig.

In addition to the sperm, semen contains secretions of accessory glands. Two such accessory glands are the seminal vesicles, located on the dorsal surface of the urethra, and the paired Cowper’s or bulbourethral glands located on either side of the urethra at its posterior end. The secretions of these glands provide nutrients for the sperm and mucus for lubrication.
Trace the pathway taken by sperm from the testis to the preputial orifice.
Female Reproductive System:
Eggs (or ova) are produced in the ovaries, located posterior to the kidneys within the abdominal cavity. What type of cell division produces eggs? ___________. Following ovulation, the eggs travel into the oviduct (sometimes called the Fallopian tube) that is where fertilization occurs. In many mammals, the uterus is expanded into a pair of convoluted uterine horns that meet dorsally to form the body of the uterus. The uterus, in turn, connects to the vagina.
In the female fetus, the reproductive and excretory systems join at the urogenital sinus and share a common external urogenital opening. The urinary bladder connects to this passageway via the urethra. As fetal development continues, the urethra and vagina continues to separate posteriorly until the two systems are completely separate and have distinct external openings.
History of Life Lab:
Objectives:
1. Learn about the different types of fossils and fossil preservation.
2. Study in depth a group of unidentified fossils.
3. Complete virtual investigation to identify dinosaur fossils using radiometric dating of rock layers and information about the dinosaur
In this lab students will examine a fossil and gather information based on its size, and relation to a metric ruler. To identify the given fossils, students will select rock samples gathered from the rock layers above and below the fossil site. Using a mass spectrometer for radiometric analysis student will analyze and interpret results. Students fill out lab report to report their findings and complete post lab questions.

Lab Report: History of Life

Your Name: __________________________________________________________________
Purpose of this Lab
What is the goal of this lab? What question is it trying to answer, or what problem is it trying to explain?

Hypothesis
After reading the lab instructions - but before starting the lab - record your best “educated guess” about what will happen in the experiment. Give your reasons and outline any assumptions that lead you to this hypothesis.

Experimental Design
List the materials used in this lab, and the procedure you followed.

Materials:
1.
2.
3.

Procedure (list steps in the order in which you performed them):
1.
2.
3.

Data
Record the data you collected in the lab (note: this section should be modified / formatted to reflect the data to be collected in the particular lab. E.G., rather than a blank text field, it may need to be a table with particular headers, or a chart, etc…)

Fossil
Dinosaur Species Absolute Dating of Rock Layer Below Absolute Dating of Rock Layer Below
Geologic Time Period

Analysis
Analyze the data you collected in the lab (provide additional instructions and/or formatting relevant to the particular lab…)

Conclusion
After conducting the experiment, how would you now explain the problem(s) or answer the question(s) raised when you described the purpose of the lab? Be sure to base your answer on the data you collected. Consider whether your conclusion is the only explanation for the data you collected, or if there could be alternate explanations.

Post Lab Questions:
1. Describe the steps you took to estimate the age of one of the fossils?
2. Describe the steps you took to identify the Archaeoteryx?
3. How could you determine that two species of dinosaurs lived in the same time period?
4. What evidence supports the hypothesis that birds evolved from dinosaurs?
5. Describe some features that dinosaurs share with modern living reptiles.
6. How could a paleontologist determine that a dinosaur was a plant eater or a carnivore?
7. What other evidence besides fossil bones might be useful in describing the behavior of a dinosaur?